Genetic Engineering

Introduction
The science of genetics began in 1900, when several plant breeders independently discovered the work of the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel. Working with garden peas, Mendel described the patterns of inheritance in pea-plant varieties. He observed that the traits were inherited as separate units, each of which was inherited independently of the others. He suggested that each parent has pairs of units but contributes only one unit from each pair to its offspring. The units that Mendel described were later given the name genes. A lot of research has been carried out in this field since then not only in plants, but also in animals. Genes are contained in the cells of all living things and carry the information, for example, about the way things grow, how they look and how they behave. In recent years, it has become possible to isolate certain genes, and to transfer them from one plant or animal to another, unrelated, plant or animal. This is called genetic modification or genetic engineering.
Examples of Genetically Modified Plants & Animals
Monsanto, a US-based company, have produced a genetically modified soya bean to make plants tolerant to the herbicide glyphosate, thereby providing a new method of weed control for farmers. Glyphosate is the active ingredient of the broad-spectrum, non-selective herbicide called Roundup, and glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS) are also known as Roundup Ready (RR) soybeans. GTS or RR beans are intended for use in exactly the same manner as unmodified beans.
The development of glyphosate-tolerant crops has been ongoing since the early 1980s. Monsanto assessed the safety of GTS relative to that of soybeans currently consumed by animals and humans by feeding GTS seed or meal to animals in research studies. The latest research carried out by the company involved the use of albino mice for acute toxicity testing of the protein expressed in GTS. Mice were administered a high dosage of the protein (572mg/kg body wt) which exceeded 1000-fold the anticipated consumption level of food products potentially containing this protein. After several days the mice were anaesthetized by CO2, killed and subjected to a gross necropsy (post mortem examination). The Journal of Nutrition reports in March 1996 of the research that "A few 'minor' pathological findings in female mice (such as corneal opacity, kidney and pituitary lesions, and hydrometra of the uterus) were observed at necropsy randomly distributed among all groups and are commonly seen in the strain of mice used by the testing laboratory. No findings were noted in the male mice. None of these findings were considered treatment related."
Accurate figures on the quantity being imported into the UK is unavailable. However, the UK currently imports something like 60% of its soya beans from the US. 1-3% of the 1996 world soya bean crop which is currently being harvested is genetically modified. There are no plans at present to segregate genetically modified beans from the rest of the crop for use in the UK.
Aqua Bounty, a bio-tech company in Canada has found a way of making fish growing quicker. It took the eggs of normal salmon and injected them with a gene from the flounder. It makes the fish produce more of its natural growth hormone so it grows six times quicker than normal salmon. This means a greater output for the fish farm and cheaper fish for consumer.
Normal tomatoes don't last very long and go squashy but with genetically modified tomatoes this process is slowed down. Scientists have identified the one gene in 50,000 that tells tomatoes to go soft and switched it off so they rot more slowly. It is claimed these plants require less water in the field, that there is less wastage during processing and this makes it cheaper for the consumer. Zeneca, the company that engineered this tomato are now trying to make a better tasting fresh tomato. They are concentrating on plant genes. However, Zeneca does admit it "cannot prove the process is 100% safe".
The Fruit Biotechnology group at the Horticulture Research Insitute in East Malling, Kent has identified genes which control the ripening process in apples, and have begun trials on the Queen Cox variety. They are hoping that the genes will programme the apple to dramatically reduce its production of ethylene, which is responsible for the ripening process. By inserting these genes the company should be able to slow down the ripening process and extend the shelf-life of the apple without losing the flavour.
The Scottish Crop Research Institute at Dundee is genetically manipulating grain to produce good malting and distilling qualities and they expect it to be of major benefit to the Scottish whisky industry.
Foods Available in the UK
In the UK the safety of genetically modified foods is considered by the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP), an independent body of experts which advises the Government. Whilst there are over 650 genetically modified crops currently being field tested and readied for the market, there are some thirteen products currently cleared for sale in Britain. They include processed products from soya beans, tomato paste and rapeseed oil.
Safety Concerns
There are scientists who are extremely concerned about the consequences of genetic engineering. Dr Me Wan Ho of the Open University says that scientists do not fully understand the process of genetic engineering and they think along the lines of each gene working separately when in reality all genes work together. If you change one, it then sets off a change in all genes. She claims we have yet to understand what this change will be.
Nebraskan researchers have warned that genetically altered foods may contain hidden allergens that can trigger life-threatening reactions in patients with food allergies. Their study of nine people allergic to Brazil nuts, published in the New England Journal of Medicine, found that eight showed signs of allergic reaction when they were exposed, via skin tests, to extract of soya bean genetically engineered to contain 25 albumin - a protein found in Brazils.
Environmentalists are concerned that genetically modified fish will escape from fish farms and breed with fish in the wild upsetting the ecosystem in much the same way as unmodified fish are escaping from farms today. Also, genes can be transferred from crop plants to closely-related weed species by cross-pollination, producing weeds resistant to herbicides.
Scientists claim that through bio-technology we can provide food for a growing world population but there are people who doubt that this is the right way to go. Eventually we may discover bio-technology to be harmless but some feel these foods are being marketed too quickly without enough known about them.
What the Manufacturers Say
Granovita, Sunrise, Whole Earth, Dragonfly Foods and Winner, who produce Swedish Glace non dairy ice cream, only use organically grown soya beans which are not genetically engineered in any way. Dayville are relaunching their N'ice Day non dairy alternative to ice cream using only organically grown soya beans. Cauldron Foods do not support the use of genetically modified soya beans and will not be using them. Plamil share consumers concern about genetically engineered soya beans and have bought in extra stock of raw materials from the 1995 crop of soya beans so there will be no genetically engineered ingredients in their products in the forseeable future. This will give them breathing space to make alternative plans for the future. Vandemoortele, who produce Provamel and Alpro brand soya milks, desserts & Yofu non-dairy yoghurts, have also taking the step of "securing a supply of non-GM soya beans from the 1995 crop and other sources" thus enabling them to "continue to manufacture from non-GM beans for the foreseeable future." Suma Wholefoods will consider stocking goods guaranteed not to be genetically engineered and highlight them in their catalogue. They say that if governments can be persuaded to insist on genetically engineered products being labelled accordingly they will pass this information on, and might well refuse to stock them where appropriate substitutes are available. Tofutti have presently stockpiled surplus stocks of soya beans to guarantee there are no genetically modified soya beans within any Tofutti products and are working with their suppliers to evaluate segregrating the beans. Haldane Foods have obtained forward cover on their soya based ingredients to ensure genetically modified free products well into 1997. This will incur additional costs that may eventually have to be passed onto the customer. They also feel it is necessary to allow time for the situation to clarify. Bute Island Foods, makers of Scheese, say that "as a company we do not support this practice and have taken steps to ensure that no GM materials will appear in our products. If at any point in future we find ourselves in the position of having no choice but to use GM material, please be assured that such information will appear on our labelling. Until then we will do all in our power to source non GM ingredients."
Kraft Jacobs Suchard, the 4th largest food company in Europe has said that for the foreseeable future, all soya based ingredients used in their products in Europe will only be derived from crops which are free of genetically engineered material. Unilever will label foods containing genetically engineered products.
Iceland is committed to producing products free from genetically engineered material. Holland and Barrett's policy is where possible not to source or sell genetically modified foods. However as 1-3% of the world crop of soya beans will not be segregated from other soya beans, it is not inconceivable therefore, that some of that crop may be used in the manufacture of products sold by Holland and Barrett. Holland and Barrett Calcium Enriched and Unsweetened Soya Milks will be produced for at least the next twelve months using beans that have not been genetically modified. Allied Frozen Foods are complying with legislation and Government guidance but their position, "by necessity, parallels that of our major customers" [supermarkets]. Waitrose will ensure that if genetically modified soya might have been used in the production of any of their lines then their customers will be informed either by explanatory leaflets or by a products listing. They have produced a list of all Waitrose branded products which are free from soya. Unfortunately, this is list is not vegan. Marks and Spencer will clearly label foods which have been genetically modified. However, individual labelling may not be possible in the case of foods containing ingredients derived from commodity crops imported from abroad such as soya. In this case, information will be available to customers indentifying those St Michael lines which may contain these ingredients.
Nestle are "fully committed to the responsible use of biotechnology" and "whenever it is reasonable and practicable, will indicate on the label the use of ingredients produced with the aid of biotechnology.
ASDA say that "Where there is a clear choice between modified and non-modified foods or ingredients we will offer the non-modified option - or both, if there is a convincing consumer benefit in doing so. In the meantime our technical teams will of course keep abreast of developments, so that we can keep our customers fully briefed."
Sainsbury's originally agreed to source the soya beans it uses in its products. However, by late August it had accepted that segregating products containing modified soya beans is neither practical nor feasible. Tesco will be labelling products all products that contain genetically modified substances. Somerfield will be identifying products containing genetically modified material by labelling the product itself. In addition, any foods containing material which is substantially different as a result of genetic modification will be labelled. If they are unsure about the presence of modified genetic material in a product, they will inform customers of this via leaflets and posters.
The Co-op will be "doing all we can to provide consumer information and to allow consumers to make that choice." However, it adds "..soya is a very versatile ingredient which pops up in different forms in a wide variety of products. Like wheat, it can be milled to produce soya flour or extracted for its oil. These extracts can be further processed into ingredients such as soya protein, soya isolate and textured soya protein, all of which may simply be referred to on the label as vegetable protein, vegetable isolate or textured vegetable protein. The additives lecithin, E322, used especially in vegetarian products where it is an alternative to egg-based lecithin, and E479b, thermally oxidised soya bean oil interacted with mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids, are both made from soya. The beans themselves can be made into milk, used in baby foods and as an alternative to cows milk for people with allergies to cow's milk. It can be fermented to produce soya sauce and the meat replacements, tofu and tempeh. Soya and soya-based ingredients are found in every type of product: bread, biscuits and bakery products, dairy products, baby foods, meat and meat products, savoury snack products, vegetarian products, animal feed".
The Co-op will not be stocking any food product containing human genetic material. No Co-op brand products will contain vegetables or fruits modified with genetic material from animal sources and all Co-op brand products from containing genetically modified material from non related species will be labelled.
The Future
Monsanto's position is that their genetically modified soya beans pose no health or safety concerns, and have been approved by government safety regulations so there is no need to segregate them. They claim this would be impractical and costly. The American Soybean Association, large traders such as Cargill and Archer Daniels Midland, some large German soya processors and the US government agree with Monsanto and in 1996 decided not to separate genetically modified beans.
A number of soybean traders have disagreed with this position claiming that segregation is not only possible but easy and cheap. GenEthics News spoke to one of these traders, Nicolass Konijnendijk, who runs a firm called Agro Consulting and Trading based in Florida. Konijnendijk pointed out that the genetically modified soya beans are only 2% of the US crop the year, and are being grown in well defined areas, so segregation is relatively simple. One of the larger US processors, Central Soay also told GenEthics that it banned these beans from its Cincinnati site.
In Europe an overwhelming majority of members of the European Parliament supported a resolution calling on the European Commission and member states to ensure segregation and labelling of genetically engineered soya beans on the European market. Individual European countries have also been taking a stand on the issue. The UK Government's advisory Committee on Novel Foods has now agreed to re-examine the issue of labelling genetically engineered soya. In the Netherlands all Swiss food products containing genetically engineered soya must be labelled. In Denmark the government has decided that all food items containing genetically engineered soya must be labelled. In January 1997 the Agriculture Minister of France ruled that all such products must be clearly labelled. In Switzerland all Swiss food products containing genetically engineered soya must now be labelled. In Spain, Parliament called on the government to oppose EU approval of Ciba Geigy's genetically engineered maize and the Ministry of Environment supported by the Ministry of Health believes the soya and maize should be labelled to give the public a choice. Following the European Commission's decision to allow Ciba Geigy's genetically engineered corn into Europe, the Austrian Government decided that health and environment concerns had not been adequately considered. On 23 December 1996 they announced they would not allow th eimport of the corn and would challenge the Commission's approval using Article 16 of the Directive which governs the release of genetically engineered foods into the environment. Austria can now legally ban the corn for up to three months while the Commission decides it can uphold the ban. This is the first time Article 16 has been used in the EU.
The future of genetically modified foods in the market place is changing constantly. If you are concerned about the use of genetically engineered material, it is wise to contact food companies periodically for an update on the situation.
Vegan Society Product Research
The Vegan Society is currently researching the fourth edition of the Animal Free Shopper and aims to identify any foods that contain genetically modified material.
Further Information
· Copies of the full ACNFP reports on genetically modified foods available in the UK can be obtained free of charge from the ACNFP Administrative Secretariat, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Room 429d, Ergon House, c/o Nobel House, 17 Smith Square, London SW1P 3JR.
· MAFF has also published a booklet on Genetic Modification and Food free of charge from Foodsense, London SE99 7TT.
· Institute of Grocery Distribution, Grange Lane, Letchmore Health, Watford WD2 8DQ. 01923 857141
· Food and Drink Federation, 6 Catherine Street, London WC2B 5JJ. 020 7836 2460.
· Soya Bean Information Centre, 59 Russell Square, London WC1B 4HJ.
· Genetic Food Alert, Tel: 0141 554 6099
· Genetics Forum, 3rd Floor, 5-11 Worship Street, London EC2A 2BH.
· Patent Concern Coalition, c/o Genetics Forum News (address above).
· GenEthics News, PO Box 6313, London N16 ODY.
· Natural Law Party, Mentmore Towers, Mentmore, Bucks LU7 OQH. 01296 662211
· Greenpeace, Canonbury Villas, London N1 2PN. 020 7354 5100.