In this paper I will examine the Buddhist diet - its restrictions, significance,
symbolism, and the reasons behind these guidelines. Most of the world's great
religious or spiritual faiths have some sort of guidelines, restrictions, recommendations,
and/or symbolism involving diet, food and beverage. Some faiths exclude certain
types of animals, have certain holidays that restrict specific types of food,
discourage gluttony, and/or limit or prohibit the use of alcoholic beverages.
Buddhism, in general, fundamentally prohibits any and all animal meat or intoxicants
at all times. However, with further investigation, there are some unusual or
less-well-known additions or exceptions to this relatively simple guideline.
The reasons behind these restrictions are slightly more complex and warrant
further discussion. It is necessary to note that, like many other faiths and
traditions, there are various translations, interpretations, and degrees of
tolerance within Buddhism. I will not focus on any one "school" or
"sect" in Buddhist thought, but refer to and contrast/compare any
specific variances as they come up, if they are crucial to my focus.
Whether or not the reader does or does not "believe" in the Buddhist
teachings should not matter to the spirit of my argument. The Buddhist teachings
and tradition provide important "food for thought" to all of us; thought
that can at least be adopted metaphorically for today's more secular and science-centered
world. (This by no means is meant as a discredit to Buddhist thought and faith,
but merely a prelude to the following argument and a request that the reader
proceed with an open mind and an open heart).
I will begin by summarizing the importance of The Buddha's instructions for
the "Five Contemplations While Eating", since this is an exercise
that forces the Buddhist to stop and think about the food they are eating. It
is the first step in questioning what food is, why we eat it, where it comes
from, and when and how we should eat it. One must:
"think about where the food came from and the amount of work necessary
to grow the food, transport it, prepare and cook it and bring it to the table."
(1)
One should then consider if one deserves the food or not - are they worthy of
it? One should consider one's own mind - is it greedy, out of focus? One should
know that the food provided is a necessity and a healing agent for the body,
that they are subject to illness without the food. And finally, one should remember
that food is only received and eaten for the purpose of "realizing the
Way" (1) or a part of the means-to-an-end to reach enlightenment.
While one contemplates these, s/he must determine which food is appropriate
for consumption, and which is forbidden. Furthermore, it is important to know
why certain foods and drink fall into either the forbidden or appropriate categories.
To do this, we must first look at the "Five Moral Precepts", one of
the most important aspects of Buddhism.
Failure to follow any of the "Five Moral Precepts" causes harm to
others, further clouds one's true seeing nature, and greatly decreases one's
chances of being born a human again (a vantage point along the path to enlightenment);
these are the basis for their forbidance. The "Five Moral Precepts"
are NO killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, or partaking of intoxicants.
The last one is forbidden because it tends to hinder one's judgment and make
one more susceptible to committing one of the first 4 precepts. This is why
alcoholic beverages are forbidden. Having a drink may not have direct karmic
effects on another being, but if drink increases the chances of one committing
the other precepts, then it is dangerous, and therefore discouraged. And to
the individual (an oxymoron in Buddhism), intoxicants will distort and cloud
one's samadhi (proper concentration, necessary for meditation) and path to enlightenment.
So what is wrong with the other 4 moral precepts? Stealing and lying are not
directly related to my topic of diet, but are forbidden because they cause bad
karma. Causing bad karma harms other sentient beings, and sooner or later will
come back to haunt the original liar or stealer.
How is sexual misconduct related to diet? In the Shurangama Sutra (Mahayana
school), The Buddha explains how the "Five Pungent Spices", including
garlic and onions, are forbidden:
Beings who seek samadhi should refrain from eating [the] five pungent plants
of this world. If these five are eaten cooked, they increase one's sexual desire;
if they are eaten raw, they increase one's anger. (2)
Furthermore, the gods "will stay far away from them because they smell
bad, [and] hungry ghosts will hover around and kiss their lips". (2) Being
around ghosts will hinder one's quest for enlightenment. These demons have the
power to appear as false Buddhas and speak false Dharma. The Buddha further
warns that in the Dharma-ending Age (the age in which we are now) there will
be an abundance of false prophets, or ghosts and demons who will appear as Bodhissatvas.
Those who are so far off the path might believe in or be possessed by ghosts
or demons mascarading as enlightened masters. These demons might talk the misguided
ones into consuming "excrement and urine, or meat and wine" and justify
it. (3)
I discuss killing, the first and most important moral precept, last because
it is the precept that is the heart of the focus of the Buddhist diet, indeed
the most important aspect of it.
In the Judeo-Christian tradition's Ten Commandments - "Thou shall not kill"
is generally taken with multiple exceptions. For example, it is all right to
kill in battle for protection, or to eat or sacrifice animals (in the Old Testament,
God required animal sacrifices). By contrast, no kind of killing of animals
or people is ever allowed in Buddhism - these are the indisputable guidelines.
However, there are various levels of "severity" that these tenets
hold in various times, places, and sects. For instance, in the early Indian
Vinaya (Monastic Code), since the monks were homeless wanderers, it was common
practice to beg for food (this tradition is still practiced similarly in Theravada
(or Hinayana) countries in SouthEast Asia). The monks "were expected to
eat everything that was put in their begging bowl without discrimination, including
meat or rotten food". (4) The Vinaya was so strict that monks had to watch
out for any tiny organisms in their drinks or where they walked. Since the monks'
food was obtained by begging, they were to have no knowledge of the food's source
beforehand. If they received meat,
the monk had to be convinced that the meat was not specifically prepared for
him. The criteria were that the monk had not seen, not heard, or did not have
a suspicion that the meat had been prepared specifically for the monks. (4)
It was the monk's conscious effort to obtain vegetarian food that "counted".
In the early centuries of the common era, Mahayana school Buddhism made its
way into China (and eventually other Mahayana countries, Korea and Japan). Here,
monasteries developed with land for monks to cultivate their own food, more
or less guaranteeing its vegetarian nature that is not always possible through
begging. This made it possible for the monks to follow a more strict vegetarian
diet, and even develop a cuisine style (jai in China, shojin ryori in Japan).
It is a Mahayana goal to help all other beings achieve enlightenment. So it
is due to the newer Mahayana traditions that the stricter vegetarian diets came,
and eventually made its way into the culture of modern Buddhist lay persons.
From the Fan-wang-jing text:
A son of the Buddha shall not eat the flesh of any sentient beings. If he eats
their flesh, he shall cut off great compassion, as well as the seed of Buddhahood
within him. (4)
So we see that the vegetarian diet is followed in both major Buddhist traditions
(Theravada and Mahayana), but that slightly different measures are taken to
achieve this.
Vegetarianism, "a natural and logical ramification of the moral precept
against the taking of life" (5) is a diet that includes no animal meat.
In modern terms, we might use the word "vegan" to describe the strict
Mahayana diet. The term "vegan" refers to one that does not eat any
animals, but also any animal products or derivatives, including milk, cheese,
honey; or using animal furs, leathers, skins, etc. The Buddha recommended that
pure Bodhisattvas follow this ideal:
[they] who do not wear silk, leather boots, furs, or down ...and who do not
consume milk, cream, or butter, can truly transcend this world. Both physically
and mentally one must avoid the bodies and the by-products of beings, by neither
wearing them or eating them. I say that such people have true liberation. (6)
The Buddhist term ahimsa is now being adopted by many secular vegans. Ahimsa
refers to the compassionate, non-violent treatment of animals and all sentient
beings. Not only does the practice of ahimsa keep the Buddhist on the right
path, it also enforces a "better life and better health". (7)
Killing or eating meat breaks several rules at one time. One who does harms
other sentient beings and restricts their path/chance to gain enlightenment/nirvana.
One also hurts one's self since all beings are a part of one whole. One also
spreads the bad killing karma, which will later cause one suffering, or propagate
more killing. One also enforces the suffering caused by the cycle of death and
rebirth.
All sentient beings desire to live. All animals try to escape when being killed
for food;
Like a fish which is thrown on dry land, taken from his home in the waters,
the mind strives and struggles to get free from the power of Death. (8)
When one kills an animal, either directly or indirectly by requesting the meat,
s/he is taking the life of a living being (or beings). So to the Buddhist, a
butcher is the worst trade. However, as a consumer, purposefully buying or consuming
animals is a part of the killing process. By creating demand, it is the same
as killing the sentient beings yourself. Doing so goes against the "highest
and most universal ideal of Buddhism, [to] work unceasingly for permanent end
to the suffering of all living beings, not just humans". (9)
Eating meat causes two kinds of suffering: the immediate suffering for the animal
that is being slaughtered, and the suffering caused by the cycle of death and
rebirth. When a sentient being dies, it is forced to begin again the painful
process of rebirth. The only way to stop this cycle is to reach full enlightenment.
Since it is possible for animals to become enlightened, killing them deprives
them of that chance.
The Western notion of the individual self (or shall we say "selfish individual")
is distinctly "un"-Buddhist:
He who lives only for pleasures, and whose soul is not in harmony, who considers
not the food he eats, is idle, and has not the power of virtue - such a man
is moved by MARA (evil one), is moved by selfish temptations, even as a weak
tree is shaken by the wind. (10)
In Buddhism, one cares for other beings as s/he does for one's self - they are
interconnected, a part of one whole. The Buddha taught that all sentient beings
are really a part of one original whole organism. Therefore, when one kills
another, they are actually killing a part of themselves. They are also killing
a part of their parents (also forbidden in Buddhism). So, in effect, eating
meat is suicidal!
We affect and are affected by one collective karma. Karma works sort of like
a bank account. Beings that have caused bad karma are reborn as lesser beings
(animals, demons); those who follow the moral precepts and spread good karma
will be reborn as higher beings (gods, humans). When lesser beings pay off their
"debts", they can be reborn as humans. Since human beings are in the
best position for enlightenment, this is the most desired level. As the Buddha
explained,
if in the process of repayment the lives of other beings were taken or their
flesh eaten, then it will start a cycle of mutual devouring and slaughtering
that will send the debtors and creditors up and down endlessly. (11)
When we kill, we increase and perpetuate the bad karma of the killing karma.
This bad karma will come back to us in this life or the next, but certainly
has a more immediate affect on the being that we have just killed. Spreading
the killing karma affects the whole so much that it collects and perpetuates,
eventually leading to wars in the future.
When a person dies, their soul can split up into several animals - a flock of
sheep, a hive of bees, a hill of ants, etc. When one takes the life of one of
these animals, they are actually taking part of the life of the human that once
was. The Shurangama Sutra tells how a person who eats a sheep may become a sheep
in the next life, and how the sheep might become a person. In a repetitive cycle,
"they eat each other" (Shurangama Sutra, 80). There is no hierarchy
of sentient beings; although each are at different levels, they are equally
important. So, killing an animal is really an act of murder; eating the animal
is cannibalism. Following this line of belief, we can see why many Buddhists
practice liberating animals, or saving animals that are destined to be slaughtered.
The Buddha recommended this practice:
Whenever a Bodhisattva sees a person preparing to kill an animal, he should
devise a skillful method to rescue and protect it, freeing it from its suffering
and difficulties. (12)
(One theory for the rapidly increasing human overpopulation is that due to modern
mass market meat, animal testing, industrialization and science, we are killing
more animals than ever before. These beings that are killed may come back as
humans, thus increasing the human population).
I have briefly summarized the reasons behind the Buddhist diet, founded on the
moral precepts. I urge the reader to consider these ideas; as Dharmachari Saaramati
adds,
Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike - have only begun to fully appreciate what
this tradition can add to current efforts to transform our attitudes towards
the world in which we live. (13)
There are other restrictions involving diet that vary from sect to sect, like
proper times and amounts of food that can be eaten, forbidance of raw foods;
but the observance of a diet that does not violate the moral precept of no killing
is most important and universal.
Food, and the guidelines involving it, play significant roles in the Buddhist
tradition. The Buddha talks about how in a past life he had to "eat the
grain meant for horses" (6) to pay a karma debt. One unusual passage in
the Shurangama Sutra tells how the Buddha created "pure meat...a transformation
brought into being by my spiritual powers. It basically has no life-force".
(6) It is believed that the Buddha himself actually died from food poisoning.
The ironic paradox of my topic is that in Buddhism - food, eating, and taste
are all illusions in the first place, not a part of our true seeing nature.
But our true seeing nature is distorted by our ignorance, which is caused by
the cycle of death and rebirth. All suffering stems from this cycle. And so,
ahimsa, the compassionate treatment of animals; and the resulting Buddhist vegetarian
diet, are essential to the ending of all suffering and ignorance; and a mandatory
practice in the quest for true enlightenment for ourselves and all living beings.
Notes
(1) Epstein, Dr. Ron, Buddhism A-Z, selection: "Five Contemplations While
Eating". http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Buddhism.htm
[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhist%20Dict/BD%20D%20to%20G.htm]
(2) Shurangama Sutra, p.182, translation Buddhist Text Translation Society,
see: [http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Shurangama/Shurangama.htm]
(3) Shurangama Sutra, p.232, translation Buddhist Text Translation Society,
see: [http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Shurangama/Shurangama.htm]
(4) Eijo. Buddhism & Vegetarianism. published on [http://www.ccil.org/~cneal/veg.html]
(5) Epstein, Dr. Ron, Buddhism A-Z, selection: "Vegetarianism"
[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhist%20Dict/BD%20P%20to%20Z.htm]
(6) Shurangama Sutra, p.145-7, translation Buddhist Text Translation Society,
see: [http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Shurangama/Shurangama.htm]
(7) Wu Hung Bhiksu, "The Buddhist Perspective on Animals and Life Conservation...",
[http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Buddhist%20Perspective%20on%20Animals.htm]
(8) Dhammapada. p. 34, from [http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bp239/dhamma.html]
(9) Epstein, A Buddhist Perspective on Animal Rights,
[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism%20and%20Animal%20Rights.htm]
(10) Dhammapada. p. 7, from [http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bp239/dhamma.html]
(11) Shurangama Sutra, p.205, translation Buddhist Text Translation Society,
see: [http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Shurangama/Shurangama.htm]
(12) Epstein, Dr. Ron, Buddhism A-Z, selection: "liberating living beings"
[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhist%20Dict/BD%20H%20to%20O.htm]
(13) Sponberg, Alan, "The Buddhist Conception of an Ecological Self",
[http://www.fwbo.org/wbr/vol2/ecological_self.html]
(14) Long Discourses of the Buddha, translated by Maurice Walshe. Wisdom Publications,
Somerville, Mass. 1995.
Michael Ohlsson is a student at San Francisco State University. He can be reached
at mohlsson@sfsu.edu.