Buddhism and Green Issues
Prof.
J B Dissanayaka
This article is based
on a talk given by Prof. J B Dissanayaka, at the Joint Vesak Celebration at Hammersmith
Town Hall in 1993. He is Professor of Sinhalese at the University of Colombo,
Sri Lanka. A qualified linguist, Professor Dissanayaka has written extensively
on a variety of subjects, ranging from modern linguistics, grammar, Buddhism and
aspects of Sri Lankan and Maldivian culture.
Today,
at the turn of another century, we are told that we are passing through perhaps
the gravest crisis in human history: the ecological crisis. It is considered 'grave'
because it seems to threaten the very survival of the earth, and invariably, its
inhabitants - both man and beast.
Ecology deals with relations of living organisms
to their environment, and the present crisis stems from the fact that the natural
eco-systems have been disturbed by man. Of course, a certain degree of disturbance
cannot be helped because man is not simply a part of nature but also the one who
can control it. For what is human civilization but the control of nature?.
However,
in the course of our civilization, we seem to have mismanaged our affairs. We
seem to have exploited nature in such a way as to create an imbalance in the natural
eco-systems. As Krishna Chaitanya says, in his 'Profile of Indian Culture': "With
the growth of the megalopolis and with town-planners thinking in terms of continuous
conurbation extending right across continents, man is tending to forget how profoundly
his life is linked with that of nature. He has stripped the hills and valleys
of their mantle of green and the rivers, thus abetted in their assault on the
weakened earth, are washing away the future into the sea. It is the forest cover
that conserves the soil from erosion, regulates the flow of streams and purifies
the air we breathe".
In view of this destruction, international organizations
are today addressing themselves to this problem of environmental crisis. They
are seeking answers to this problem from every possible source: science, religion,
folk wisdom and so on. In this context, what wisdom can Buddhism offer?.
The
Buddha's view of the relation between man and his environment finds expression
in his view of 'Ideal living' prescribed for the householder. In the Mangala Suttanta,
where he enumerates a list of ideal factors conducive to the well-being of an
individual, he mentions one as 'patirupa desa vaso' which means 'to reside in
a suitable locality'. The Buddha enumerated these factors at the request of a
deity who asked him to name the "highest blessings" ('mangalani'). Of
course, the Buddha does not discuss, in this discourse, what is meant by 'suitable'
but we are able to interpret it in the light of his own sensibility enshrined
in the events of his life-story, and rules of conduct he recommended for his monks.
The word 'suitable', obviously, is a relative term and its meaning depends
on questions such as 'suitable for whom?' or 'suitable for what?' What is suitable
for the monks may not be suitable for the householder and vice versa. But, in
general, a 'suitable locality' in the Buddha's view, was one in which green vegetation
played an integral part.
The narrative of the Buddha's life is symbolic of
his love of nature, particularly of forests, parks and gardens. His birth itself
is symbolic of this love. "In Queen Maya's dream of the annunciation,"
observes Chaitanya, "the Buddha comes to her in the form of a white elephant
holding a white lotus in his trunk. She was delivered of the flower of the human
race while reaching for the flowering spray of a tree in the Lumbini grove which
at that time was one mass of flowers from the roots to the tips of the branches."
Of course, the Buddha had no choice in the selection of his place of birth, but
in the later events of his life, he certainly had his choice.
The site the
Buddha chose for his Enlightenment was the bank of river in the kingdom of Magadha.
The river was Neranjara in the village of Uruvela. The bank of a river is always
rich in vegetation, in addition to its tranquillity that comes from the waters
that flow. Even there, he chose the foot of a spreading tree to sit and contemplate.
The tree was one that was considered a vanaspati in Indian culture. The term vanaspati
means 'the lord of the jungle' and there were a number of trees that qualified
to be lords of the jungle: they rose up to great heights and were considered abodes
of deities (devata). The assattha or ashvastha tree the Buddha chose was one that
was considered the abode of Vishnu and his wife, Lakshmi. It was also a tree that
had associations with ancestor worship. Since the Buddha attained Enlightenment
(bodhi) under this tree, botanists have named it 'ficus religiosa'. The Buddhists
call it the bodhi rukkha and because of its associations with the Buddha, no one
cuts it, even a branch of this, unless accompanied by ritual. The fact that Sujata,
the daughter of a rich merchant, came to offer milk-rice to the deity of the tree
under which the Buddha sat is evidence of the belief that it was the abode of
a deity. In fact, it is said that she mistook the Buddha for the rukkha devata
(tree deity).
The site that the Buddha chose for his first sermon, the Dhamma
cakka pavattana sutta, was again an environment marked by peace and tranquillity
of the park. If its tranquillity was disturbed at all, it was by the movement
of the deer (miga) who roamed about leisurely in the park, which was hence forth
called Migadaya (Deer Park). It was in Isipatana, which was also frequented by
seers (isi).
Finally, the Buddha chose another garden to pass into parinibbana.
This was the park of Sala trees near the township of Kusinara, which was the capital
of the Malla clan. "I am weary, Ananda," said the Buddha, on the last
lap of his journey towards Kusinara, with Ananda, his personal attendant, "and
would lie down. Spread over for me the couch with its head to the north between
the twin sala trees". So says the Maha Parinibbana Sutta. "And when
he lay down at last to rest, two small trees were in bloom though it was not the
flowering season, and they shed their blossoms on him, washing away life gently
in a soft, fragrant rain of petals."
Monasteries (arama) for the monks
were also built in environments closer to woods, parks and gardens. For such places
are conducive to meditation. The Buddha himself encouraged his benefactors to
build monasteries in such places. In fact, the Pali word vihara, which signifies
a Buddhist monastery, means 'an open place in the forest'.
One of the earliest
monasteries offered to the Buddha was the Veluvanarama in Rajagaha, the capital
of the kingdom of Magadha. It was named Veluvanarama because it was located in
a grove of bamboo (velu) trees. The monastery where the Buddha spent most of his
rains-retreats (vassa) was in the Park known as Jetavana near the city of Savatthi
in the kingdom of Kosala. The monastery built there by Anathapinika was called
the arama of Anathapinika (Anathapinikassa arame). The Buddha spent 18 vassa seasons
at this monastery and anyone who visits this site today, at Sahet Mahet, would
realize what a tranquil garden it would have been in the days of the Buddha.
It
is also interesting to note that the Buddha retired to a forest, the Parileyyaka
vana, near Kosambhi, when two parties of monks entered into a dispute. "As
they could not be reconciled and as they did not pay heed to his exhortation,
the Buddha retired to the forest". Thus, even the Buddha found solace in
the tranquillity of the forest, when he was unable to resolve human problems.
If these narratives of the Buddha's life tell us about the Buddha's sensibility
towards nature, his code of conduct for the monks spells it out in sharper terms.
In the Book of the Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), which is a collection of rules
and regulations for the guidance of monks, there is a specific rule relating to
the cutting down of trees. Once, some monks of Alavi were blamed and criticised
by people for cutting down trees for making repairs.
"How can these recluses,
sons of the Sakyans, cut down trees and have them cut down? These recluses, sons
of the Sakyans, are harming life that is one-facultied," said the people.
The Buddha called the monks and asked them, "Is it true, as is said, that
you, monks, cut down trees and had them cut down?".
"It is true,
lord," they said.
The Enlightened one, the lord, rebuked them, saying:
"How can you, monks, cut down trees and have them cut down? It is not, monks,
for pleasing those who are not yet pleased. And thus, monks, this rule of training
should be set forth: For destruction of vegetable growth there is an offence of
expiation".
In Buddhist terminology, expiation refers to a type of offence
known as pacittiya, and the term for 'vegetable growth' here is bhutagama, which
is explained as five-fold: (a) what is propagated from roots, (b) what is propagated
from stems (c) what is propagated from joints, (d) what is propagated from cuttings,
and (e) what is propagated from seeds.
For monks to be charged with this offence,
several conditions have to be fulfilled, says the Vinaya Pitaka:
"If
he thinks that it is a seed, when it is a seed, (and) cuts it or has it cut or
breaks it or has it broken or cooks it or has it cooked, there is an offence of
expiation. If he thinks that it is not a seed when it is a seed (and) cuts it
(and so on) ... there is no offence. If he thinks that it is a seed when it is
not a seed, there is an offence of wrong-doing. If he thinks that it is not a
seed when it is not a seed, there is no offence."
It is clear from the
above, that what ultimately matters is one's intention (cetana) and in the Buddha's
view cetana is kamma.
How the Buddha's respect for plant-life has been translated
into action in different Buddhist cultures in Asia is another fascinating study
but that should be the subject of another inquiry. Let me conclude this talk by
recalling one of the observations made by another great son of India, Jawahar
Lal Nehru, in 1959, when India was celebrating her ninth Vana Mahotsava: "There
should be a strict rule that no one should cut down a tree without planting two
in its place."
And let us hope that, with our new understanding of nature,
and the new strategies of conservation, "May all beings be happy !"
(sabbe satta bhavantu sukhitatta).